Shiva's Scenic Valley: Mahanaleshwar and Suhaveshwar temple clusters at Menal

By Swapna Joshi

The Menal valley is along a stream locally known as Menali. Situated in the Begun Taluka in southeastern Rajasthan, this scenic location boasts several temples scattered across its landscape. These temples can be reached from several major cities in Rajasthan, like Kota, Bundi, and Chittorgarh, given the route’s proximity to the Bundi-Chittorgarh highway. Shiva is the primary deity in the temples, although some shrines also honor Devi and Vishnu. The group also contains Shaiva maths (monasteries or residential structures mainly built for ritual practitioners) that were built as integral components of the temple clusters. Constructed out of red sandstone, the local material of the region, the edifices at Menal are datable to different periods between the 8th and 12th centuries of the common era.

The Mahanaleshwar Temple is the most prominent and well-known temple in the Menal group. Locally, the complex is simply known as the Shiva Temple at Menal or Mahanal Temple. The term ‘Mahanala or Mahanal’ literally means ‘a massive cleft,’ referring to a huge rift in the rock formation that dominates the site. The stream Menali originates in the forested zone, which begins a little further from the temple complex and dramatically descends in the form of a waterfall through the rift. Thus, the strategically located Menal temples abutting the water body create a conducive environment for a tirtha. A tirtha, literally meaning ‘a place of crossing’ or ‘a ford,’ is a place of pilgrimage usually constructed at a location revered for its natural setting, like a river or lake—the sacrality evolves within these natural landscapes, which are thought of as points of crossing. The site receives devotees and tourists throughout the year; only a few come for a pilgrimage to the temples, while most are content to enjoy the picturesque beauty of Menal.

Overview of the Site

The structures at Menal can be broadly divided into two complexes: the first being the Mahanaleshwar temple complex and the second being the Suhaveshwar temple group. While the former consists of several structures and numerous architectural remains, the latter is a small cluster around only a single temple. The two temple complexes also exhibit different styles of Indian temple architecture. The Mahanaleshwar group features temples in the bhumija and latina-nagara (mono-spired) styles, whereas the Suhaveshwar Temple showcases the shekhari (multi-spired) style. Despite their stylistic differences, most temples here are from the 11th and 12th centuries CE.

The stream separates both these temple clusters. During the monsoon, this body of water makes it difficult to access the Suhaveshwar Temple. As a result, people visit the Suhaveshwar temple cluster less frequently and research on it is relatively limited. On the other hand, the Mahanal temple complex receives a steady influx of visitors and appears in several research articles written by eminent historians. When James Todd visited Menal in the 19th century, he mentioned the area's dense vegetation and ruggedness. [1]

Mahanaleshwar Temple Complex

The complex is spread across a large area, bound by a walled enclosure containing several temples built in different time periods, along with Shaiva math and many vestiges of architectural and sculptural fragments. The vibrant temple complex of the Mahanal Temple has numerous remains, and several can be identified as belonging to the dilapidated structures that are partially preserved within this complex. Other architectural and sculptural remains are perhaps remnants of nonexistent buildings.

The complex's outermost enclosure wall has two prominent entrances, or pratolis, on the northern and western sides. The northern pratoli is the main ingress into the complex, with a more intricate design than the western one. It is a semi-open gateway that leads into the temple complex. The northern pratoli, a three-story structure, features a tripartite division on the ground floor, with enclosed spaces flanking the central elongated passage on both sides. Semi-open porches with roofs supported by intricately carved pillars connect the pratoli on either side of its entrance and exit into the complex. The balconies on the upper storey, at the level of the porches, have access from a staircase on the ground floor. An elaborate dwarashakha (doorframe or architrave) marks the principal entrance of the gateway. The gateway features intricate patterns of foliage and geometry, adorned with divine attendants on both sides, and features an image of Lakulisa, a preceptor of the Pashupata tradition of Shaivism, at its center on the latatabimba (lintel). The walls flanking this dwarashakha have images of Ganesha and Bhairava on the viewers’ left and right sides, respectively. The devakoshthas, or niches, house these images.

The Mahanaleshwar temple complex is surrounded by several temples of varying sizes, a math (Image 1), and several architectural and sculptural remains. The earliest construction in this complex is within a triple-shrine temple (Image 2), situated north of the main Mahanaleshwar Temple and to the left of the northern pratoli. Michael W. Meister, a renowned expert on Indian temple architecture, proposes that the 8th century CE saw the construction of the southern and northern single shrines within this triple-shrine temple. Meister argues that the Mauryas of Medapata and Uparamala commissioned these shrines based on their architectural style. [2] Malwa is the cultural landscape coterminous to present-day Central India, within which Uparamala denotes a region that constitutes the upper part of Malwa. The Maurya dynasty ruled this region during the 8th and 9th centuries CE. The ground plan of the two corner shrines is pancharatha (consisting of five projections) with a latina-nagara shikhara (mono-spired superstructure). The principal projections of these temples feature images of Natesha and Ardhanarishwara, while other wall surfaces feature foliage patterns, chaitya dormer motifs (horseshoe-shaped arches), and amalakas (ribbed discs). These two shrines are also identical in the architectural articulation of their elevation, which is oriented to the east. Notable are the pilasters that serve as the wall projections. The third shrine, as suggested by Meister, was presumably added later between the two shrines.[3] It is challenging to pinpoint the exact date of this likely restoration, but it most likely took place in the 11th century alongside several other constructions in the complex. Built in red sandstone, this third shrine shares a similar plan but lacks any ornamentation. Meister also mentioned that a common passage connected the two original shrines and the later addition, creating a uniform structure. [4] The later shrine also has a latina shikhara, but the form is very different from the adjoining two shrines. In this temple, the latina is plain compared to the other two and does not possess the chaitya gavaksha (dormer window motif) and amalaka. It is an excellent example of how to understand the same variety of shikharas in different forms and from different time periods within the same region.

Mahanaleshwar Temple

The bhumija mode of temple architecture guides the construction of the imposing Mahanaleshwar Temple. The ground plan of the temple comprises a garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) connected to an antarala (vestibule or antechamber), which is further linked to a mandapa (pillared hall) and a mukhamandapa (front porch). The temple's mulaprasada (main shrine) is of the pancharatha variety (consisting of five projections on one side). The lower or foundation plinth, called the pitha, of the temple consists of various mouldings, like a plain band moulding, which is called a bhitta, then a kapotali (cyma recta) moulding, followed by three friezes, of which one is a grasspatti (band of kirtimukhas or face of glory), above it is the gajathara (band of elephants), and the topmost is the narathara (band of human figures). These mouldings are also found in garbhagriha and mandapa. For the mulaprasada, the common mouldings are followed by various mouldings of the vedibandha (basal mouldings), which are labelled khura (hoof), kumbha (pot), kalasha (pitcher), and kapotali based on their shape and design. The kumbha moulding (shaped like a pot) has the most considerable height among all the other mouldings. On the frontal face, there are sculptural depictions. Above this array of mouldings are the temple's jangha (main walls), which feature sculptures on all of its projections and recesses. Here, in the niches on the three principal projections of the cardinal directions are depictions of deities Chamunda, Natesha, and Tripurantaka Shiva on the north, west, and south-facing walls of the temple, respectively. The corner projections have dikapalas (gods of the cardinal directions), the intermediate projections have surasundaris (celestial damsels or apsaras), and the recesses have vyala figures (composite mythical animal figures). Barring the principal projections, the stone used for the sculptures is a lighter-coloured sandstone, different from the red that is used in constructing the main temple. Atop the main shrine is a pancha bhuma (five-story) bhumija shikhara. The long, elongated bands on the cardinal directions and quadrants filled with miniature shikharas compose this variety of shikhara. (Image 3) Madhya Pradesh, under the suzerainty of the Paramaras of Malwa, was the primary location for the construction of this style. The shikhara of the Mahanaleshwar Temple is one of the better-preserved bhumija shikharas. Each tier or storey is called a bhumi; thus, the number of tiers defines the type of the shikhara.

The temple's mandapa is a semi-open variety, consisting of lateral wings on the northern and southern sides. The exterior walls of these structures feature sculptures, while the interior features small inner chambers, likely used by ascetics for meditation. The ceiling rests on four central pillars in addition to an astylar type of mandapa. Four beams puncture the concentric domical ceiling of the mandapa, which in turn supports the four pillars. The mandapa transports one into a simple, slightly lowered garbhagriha, enshrining a Shiva linga, an iconic representation of Shiva. The shikhara over the mandapa does not rise to the height of the main shikhara but tapers down in a descending pyramidical fashion. Such a shikhara belongs to the samvarna or phamsana variety. The outer dwarf walls of the mandapa have sculptures of Brahma, Brahmani, and Saraswati on the south-facing side, and Vishnu flanked by Vaishnavi and Chamunda on the north-facing side. Apart from these, the walls also have depictions of gods of the cardinal directions and river goddesses on the east and west-facing sides of the temple. The kakshasanas (slanting backrests or seat backs) above these dwarf walls, adorned with floral motifs and figural sculptures, add to their beauty. Lattice windows cover the gaps above the dwarf walls along the mukhamandapa. The Nandi mandapa occupies the front of the temple on the eastern side.

Despite the lack of inscriptional evidence, we can date the Mahanaleshwar Temple to the early 12th century based on its architectural style. An eminent scholar on temple architecture, Tamara Sears, has argued that there is a strong possibility that the Paramaras of Malwa, who ruled in the Uparamala and Medapata region, built this temple. This dynasty ruled in Malwa, with its capital in Dhar (present-day Madhya Pradesh). Sears substantiates her argument for the Mahanaleshwar Temple by citing the Paramara inscription in the Sun temple of Jhalrapatan in the Jhalawar district of east Rajasthan, hinting towards the possibility that the dynasty must have had a firm hold in the region during the 11th and 12th centuries CE. [5]

The presence of the Mahanaleshwar Temple suggests that Menal received sustained patronage and was an important Shaiva center starting in the eighth century, which continued well into the 12th century CE. The important inscriptional evidence for the site comes from the period of the rule of Chahamanas of Sapadalaksha [6]. King Arnoraja of this dynasty is credited with the construction of the enclosure wall, along with the two huge pratolis, in 1137 CE. In addition to this, the 12th century CE saw the construction of several toranas (decorative gateways or archways) for smaller temples. It is fascinating to see how Menal has remained a Shaiva sacred centre through all these centuries.

Shaiva Matha

The Shaiva matha is another important aspect of Menal's architecture. (Image 1) Tamara Sears has identified this two-story building as a residential structure. [7] Very few examples of such matha have survived. It consists of a central courtyard that is open to the sky, surrounded by colonnades on the ground floor, and a row of cells for ascetics to rest, meditate, or reside in the southern part of the upper storey. Earlier construction at the site reused the pillars surrounding the open courtyard on the ground floor. They bear a resemblance to the pillars of two 8th-century shrines.

The construction of the math at Menal is from the latter half of the 12th century CE, discernible from an inscription found on one of the pillars on the upper storey of the matha. It records the construction of this matha by a sage named Bhava Brahma during the reign of the Chahamana ruler Prithviraja II in 1169 CE, dedicated to the Pashupata Shaiva tradition. It is believed that Lakulisa, a revered manifestation of Shiva, initiated the lineage of the Pashupatas. Within Menal, there are several sculptures of Lakulisa on the temple's lintels and walls, among others. The matha's inscription includes a eulogy about the king, as well as details about the matha's foundation. As pointed out by Tamara Sears, the main Mahanaleshwar temple and this math were built over 50 years, but both the structures are positioned strategically to appear as if their constructions were conceptualised at the same time. [8] Mathas are present in many locations in Central India, including Kadwaha, Surwaya, Chandrehe, and Terahi.

Suhaveshwar Temple Complex

The Mahanaleshwar temple complex sits across the stream on the opposite side. An entrance gateway, with its steps leading up to the bedrock of the Menali stream, marks the approach to this temple. This is a small complex consisting of only three structures: the Suhaveshwar temple (Image 4), the Nandi mandapa in front of it, and a matha (Image 5) to the south of the temple. All of this stands on a raised plinth. Apart from the difference in the spire, the temple resembles the Mahanaleshwar Temple in its style, motifs, ornamentation, and plan. However, as previously mentioned, the Suhaveshwar Temple solely features architectural motifs and lacks any sculptures. It is a pancharatha type of shrine with a shekhari type of shikhara above it. The interiors of the mandapa are better preserved than those of the Mahanaleshwar Temple. There is an inscription on the pilaster on the right side of the antarala. Suhavadevi, the queen of Prithviraja II, the Chahamana King, patronized the temple in the year 1168 CE, according to the inscriptions. [9] This proves that the temple in the Mahanaleshwar Temple complex predates the matha. Sears has identified a residential building next to the Suhaveshwar temple as a matha. She compares the building material and layout of the two structures, which bear a striking resemblance. [10] The matha structures connect the two complexes and hint at an abundance of architectural activity in the 11th and 12th centuries CE.

It is an immense pleasure to dive into these edifices and Menal's unique location. Tourists and pilgrims often visit the Shiva temples. Everyday aartis (rituals), which include chanting hymns, take place in the Mahanaleshwar Temple at sunrise and sunset. Several people who visit the Hanuman Temple outside the entrance of this complex across the road also visit the Menal-Mahanal temple complex.

Footnotes:

[1] Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, 1829–32.

[2] Meister, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, 277-284.

[3] Ibid., 277.

[4] Ibid., 280.

[5] Sears, ‘Śaiva Monastic Complexes,’ 125.

[6] Sapadalaksha region, comprising parts of Rajasthan and north-western India, was ruled by Chahamanas or Chauhan dynasty of Shakambhari lineage.

[7] Sears, 125.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Sharma. ‘Menal Inscription of [Cāhamāna] Chief Queen Suhavadevī,’ 189–192.

[10] Sears, 120–21.

Bibliography

Meister, Michael. Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architecture North India Period of early maturity, part 2. Edited by Michael W. Meister and M. A. Dhaky. American Institute of Indian Studies, 1991.

Sears, Tamara. ‘Śaiva Monastic Complexes in Twelfth-Century Rajasthan: The Pāśupatas and Cāhamānas at Menāl.’ In South Asian Studies 23 (1) (2007): 107–26.

Sharma, Ram. 1986. 'Menal Inscription of [Cāhamāna] Chief Queen Suhavadevī, Vikrama 1225.' Deyadharma: Studies in Memory of Dr DC Sircar, Gouriswar Bhattacharya. Delhi: 189-92.

Tod, James. 1920. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan Volume 3, edited by William Crooke. Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press.