Rulers and Donars of Mahanala: Epigraphical evidence from Menal

By Swapna Joshi

Making of Menal

The great cleft of Mahanala, or Menal, with its dramatic and serene natural surroundings is home to a group of temples. Situated in the Chittorgarh district, this plateau of southeastern Rajasthan was known as the ‘Uparamala’ or Upper Malava, and, hence, Menal is also sometimes referred to as Upara Menal. [1] The entire complex showcases a variety of styles, scales, materials, and historical periods. Stylistically, these structures originate from a range between the 8th and 13th centuries CE. Early period inscriptions from Menal are unknown, but if they existed, they could have corroborated some of the first constructions in the complex. However, inscriptions are only available for Menal's second and more elaborate phase of construction.

The site's major architectural activity dates back to the 11th and 12th centuries CE. The exquisite Mahanaleshwar Temple, the Suhaveshwar Temple, the two mathas (monasteries/residential buildings), and the enclosure walls of the complex all came up in this period. These constructions are also fairly well supported by inscriptional evidence. However, no epigraphical evidence establishes the construction date of the Mahanaleshwar Temple, the best-preserved structure in the complex. According to Tamara Sears, the suzerainty of Paramaras of Malwa over the region plausibly led to the construction of the Mahanaleshwar Temple. The temple's style suggests its construction in the late 11th century CE. The period following this temple building has ushered in a period of new constructions in Menal, which is evident from the inscriptions found here. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) published a progress report from 1905–06, listing 14 fragmented and illegible inscriptions from the Menal complex. [2]

Epigraphical evidence from Menal

The inscriptions found at Menal all fit into the bracket of the 12th to 14th century CE. This is Menal's expansion period, with major contributions by the Chahamanas of Sapadalaksha 3. These include long descriptive pieces like the inscription declaring the donation extended by the Chahamana queen Suhavadevi, which was part of an undated inscription of a wandering ascetic in this region during the mediaeval period.

Inscription on the pratoli (gateway) of the Menal temple group:

The earliest known epigraphical evidence from the complex dates back to 1137 CE, with an inscription on the principal entrance in the enclosure wall surrounding the main temple complex. This inscription is from the time of the Chahamana king Arnoraja, who ruled from 1135 to 1150 CE. An inscription by the same ruler from Bijolia also mentions Menal. The building of the pratoli of the Menal temple complex marks the advent of several architectural productions on this site that were patronised by the Chahamana rulers.

Inscription in the matha from the Mahanaleshwar temple complex:

From the same century, a few years apart, there is an inscription in the matha to the south of the Mahanaleshwar Temple. The inscription, etched on the side of a pillar flanking the balcony of the upper storey of the matha, provides details of the matha's patronage and religious affiliation. A sage named Bhava Brahma, during the reign of the Chahamana ruler Prithviraja II, built the matha in the year 1169 CE (VS 1226), according to a twelve-line inscription. Important to note here is the state patronage for the Shaiva Pashupata sect, as well as the influence of this sage on state matters. [4] The Chahamana ruler had inherited the region surrounding Menal from his father and predecessor. The Menal matha inscription extends a eulogy towards the illustrious ruler Prithviraja II, calling him the righteous ruler who had performed benevolent deeds. The inscription also indicates that Prithviraja II's reign saw the completion of the matha construction. The inscription in the Bijolia group of temples also mentions Prithiviraj II.

Inscription from the Suhaveshwar Temple:

Another important epigraphical evidence from Menal that is contemporary to the matha inscription is found in the Suhaveshwar Temple. The Suhaveshwar Temple, located on the other side of the stream, a little away from the Mahanaleshwar temple complex, has an inscription on the pillar of its mandapa. The inscription dating back to VS 1225 (1168 CE) recorded the donation or grant of 20 Ajatapriya dramas per year by Suhavadevi, the chief queen of Prithiviraj II. There is no consensus among scholars as to whether this grant was for temple construction. [5] Ram Sharma, who edited this inscription, points out that there is a discrepancy in the reading of the inscription. [6] He also emphasizes that the grant recipient was a certain Ashadhareshwar, the son of Shri Vilhe, who, in turn, was the Thakur of Mathura. Sharma wants to point out that, as per the inscription, the grant was probably not for building the temple but for its maintenance. In any case, it is quite certain that the Chahamana queen is associated with the temple's construction or maintenance. Another important point to note here is the date of the inscription, which falls a year before the matha inscription from the Mahanaleshwar temple complex.

Inscription on the pedestal:

This is a fragmentary inscription noted in Indian Archaeology: A Review; however, the exact find spot and current location of the inscription are unclear. [7] The inscription, which dates to 1178 CE, aims to glorify the Chahamana king Someshwar, whose image adorns the pedestal. This is one of the latest 12th-century inscriptions in Menal's history.

Inscription on the pedestal of a loose sculpture:

This inscription is carved on the pedestal of a broken image, now preserved in the sculpture gallery in the Menal temple group premises. Nagari script and Sanskrit language adorn the seven-line inscription. Uncertainty surrounds the inscription's date, but speculation points to VS 1312 (1255 CE). [8] The inscription's purpose is to record the completion of the image of Rajakumara Dinakar Meghananda, i.e., Prince Meghananda, as his obeisance to the Mahanal Shiva. The successive lineage of Meghananda follows from Talhana, who was the ‘Chahumana tikala,’ then mandalika (chief) Naravarka to Ranaka Tribhuvaneshwar. This clearly states that the lineage is affiliated with the Chahamanas, possibly as feudatories. The later verses specify Meghananda's maternal lineage from Lakshmadevi, a family from Kolha and Rashtrakuta. These details about the prince's paternal and maternal lineage paint an elaborate picture of the political scenario in the 13th century CE. Scholars have proposed the identification of the Tribhuvaneshwar, Meghananda's father, in this inscription with the Chalukya ruler Tribhuvanapala; however, this seems unlikely due to the distinct sets of epithets used to address the two rulers. Also, the Chahamanas of Shakambari were not a strong ruling power in the period that was contemporary to this inscription. [9] The sole significant insight from this inscription is the existence of petty chiefs and their fiefs in Menal during the 13th century, who played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of the region. In the century following its construction, people regarded the Mahanaleshwar Shiva temple as a place of great sanctity.

Guhila Inscription from Menal

The latest dated inscription from Menal comes from the 14th century CE, when the Guhilas of Mewar held sway over this region. In an inscription dating to 1389 CE, there is a reference to the Hada chief Kshetrasimha building a temple. [10] The king also renounced his political power, transferred it to his son and successor, and began leading a secluded life in God's presence. This inscription represents the latest temple-building activity in the Menal temple group.

Undated Ascetic Inscription from Menal

This inscription bears graffiti etched by a wandering ascetic with the name 'Achyantadhvaja Jogi'. In Menal, there are two such engravings: one on the south face of the porch pillars of the central shrine in the 8th-century triple-shrine temple, and another on the mandapa pillar of the Mahanaleshwar temple itself. [11] Several sites in the Hadoti and Mewar regions of Rajasthan feature graffiti bearing the name of itinerant ascetics. The purpose of these wanderings is not known, but the sites that the hermit visited are connected to a larger network of Shaiva pilgrimage sites.

Footnotes:

[1] Meister, ‘Style and idiom in the art of Uparamala’, 344.

[2] Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle 1905–06.

[3] Sapadalaksha region, comprising parts of Rajasthan and north-western India, was ruled by Chahamanas or Chauhan dynasty of Shakambhari lineage.

[4] Sharma, ‘Menal Inscription of the Time of Chahamana Prithviraja II,’ 319–322.

[5] Hargreaves, ed., Annual report of the Archaeological Survey of India 1927-28, 147.

[6] Sharma, ‘Menal Inscription (Chahamana) Chief Queen Suhavadevī,’ 189–192.

[7] Ghosh, ed., Indian Archaeology 1962-63 A review, 54.

[8] Sharma, ‘Menal Inscription of the Chahamana Prince Meghanada,’ 155–158.

[9] Sears. ‘Śaiva Monastic Complexes,’ 115.

[10] Jain. Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan, 406–407.

[11] Mankodi, ‘Acyantadhaja Jogi: Hermit with the emblem of Shiva as Acharya,’ 160–65.

Bibliography

Meister, Michael W. ‘Style and idiom in the art of Uparamala.’ In Muqarnas Volume 10 (1993).

Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle 1905-06.

Hargreaves, H., ed., Annual report of the Archaeological Survey of India 1927-28. 1965.

Sharma, Ram. ‘Menal Inscription of the Chahamana Prince Meghanada, Vikrama 1312.’ In Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 37 (1967): 155-158.

___________. ‘Menal Inscription of the Time of Chahamana Prithviraja II, Vikrama 1226’, Epigraphia Indica Vol. 38, Part 7 (1970): 319-322.

___________. ‘Menal Inscription of [Cāhamāna] Chief Queen Suhavadevī, Vikrama 1225.’ In Deyadharma: Studies in Memory of Dr DC Sircar, Gouriswar Bhattacharya. Delhi (1986): 189–92.

Ghosh, A., ed. Indian Archaeology 1962-63: A review. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1965.

Sears, Tamara. ‘Śaiva Monastic Complexes in Twelfth-Century Rajasthan: The Pāśupatas and Cāhamānas at Menāl.’ In South Asian Studies 23 (2007).

Jain, K C. 1972. Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan: A Study of Culture and Civilization. India: Motilal Banarsidass, 1972.

Mankodi, Kirit. ‘Acyantadhaja Jogi: Hermit with the Emblem of Siva as Acintya.’ In Bilvapatra Treasures of Indian Art Dr. N. P. Joshi Felicitation Volume. Edited by M. N. P. Tiwari and Kamal Giri. New Delhi: Research India Press, 2013.